Motivation+an+Inquiry+Project

The Loss of Student Motivation: An Inquiry Project Dana Wilson University of Tennessee at Chattanooga EDUC 590 Fall 2005 The Institutional Review Board of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (FWA00004149) has approved this research project 05-242. Introduction to the Problem Research has illustrated that motivation affects student academic achievement immensely. For example, “motivation can affect new learning and the performance of previously learned skills, strategies, and behaviors, which has important implications for schooling” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 5). In addition, my own personal experience has demonstrated that children are in danger of losing motivation early in their school careers. For instance, my nephew lost motivation in relation to school early in his educational career. This loss of motivation for school has left him in an extremely precarious position as he enters high school and is looking toward the future. He has told me, frankly, that he wishes that he would have “tried harder” when he was younger so that he would not have been grouped in technical classes, or, as he refers to them, “the dummy classes.” A close friend also communicated to me that her son’s middle school math teacher told the class that, “I am tired of teaching and I bet that all of your parents hate their jobs, also!” This statement forced me to question the effects of teachers on student motivation. Thus, the purpose of this study is to identify the factors that cause students, similar to my newphew, to lose motivation during their educational careers. Review of Literature Many topics abound in the field of education; one of great significance for teachers to investigate is the motivation of their students. Motivation, which is “conceptualized as students’ energy and drive to learn, work effectively and achieve to their potential at school,” (Martin, 2003, p. 89), plays an essential role in student achievement. Educational motivation has been examined by many of the great researchers such as Plato, Aristotle, McDougall, and Freud. This substantial amount of research has found that motivation, “is an important quality that pervades all student activities” (Pintrich & Schunk 1996, p. 3). And furthermore, “motivated students display interest in activities, work diligently, feel self-confident, stick with tasks and perform well” (p. 3). Through this inquiry into the motivation of students, an explanation of motivation, relating to education and students, are will be given. Additionally, the various factors that affect the motivation of students will be discussed and the many pedagogical methods teachers can employ to increase motivation will be reviewed. Initially, we must define motivation, in relation to education. The study of the motivation of students in the classroom is on the forefront of both educational and psychological research. Psychological research has been completed focusing on “the psychological functioning of a student, such as goal orientations, beliefs about ability and beliefs about control” (Wentzel, 1997, p. 411) in relation to motivation. Research has also been completed in behavioral psychology relating to student judgments on task difficulty in relation to motivation, attributes for stress, failure, and evaluations of outcomes (Weinert & Kluwe, 1997, p. 11). In addition to these various studies, a great deal of educational research has been completed on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation occurs when “task participation is its own reward and does not depend on explicit rewards or other external constraints” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 258). An intrinsically motivated student completes tasks because they have an interest in them and they have a high desire for learning. This desire and interest in learning has an immense impact on student achievement. Students, who learn for intrinsic reasons, “engage in activities that enhance learning, in turn, learning promotes intrinsic motivation. As students develop skills they perceive their positive progress and feel more efficacious about learning” (p. 258). Furthermore, it has been found that, “the development of intrinsic valuing of intellectual activities stands to provide the firmest of bases for sustaining intellectual motivation through childhood and adolescence through adulthood” (Wentzel,1997, p. 412). Thus, intrinsic motivation is an important factor from early education throughout adulthood. Extrinsic motivation is described as what students’ focus on, “factors external to themselves and unrelated to the task they are performing” (McDevitt & Ormond, 2006, p. 456). This type of motivation has been described as detrimental to student development and achievement due to the fact that it generally is “a means to an end” (Wentzel, 2002, p. 289). Extrinsically motivated students often “look for performance indicators (e.g., grades and rewards) and social comparisons (e.g., being the best or the worst in the group) for evidence of who they are as students” (Perry, Nordby, & Vanderkamp, 2003, p. 320). An example of an extrinsically motivated student is illustrated through this teacher’s description of a student: “the main thing that seems to motivate Eric is doing better than everyone else. Eric is not content to be second best” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 2). In addition to the previously discussed research, we must also examine the various categories of students, in relation to motivation. The first category is the successorientated student. These students are tremendously intrinsically motivated, low in fear of failure, and especially engaged in academic activities. A second category of student is the failure avoider. These types of students are extremely fearful of failure and are low in their confidence for success. These students will employ various techniques such as procrastination to alleviate stress and avoid failure. A third category is the over striver. These students will are mainly extrinsically motivated and will “approach stress but simultaneously fear failure greatly” (Pintruch & Schunk, 1996, p. 73). In the classroom, an over striver will constantly be concerned with achievement and grades. Finally, we see the failure accepter, which is considered the unmotivated student. These students will show “a basic indifference to achievement” (p. 73) through being completely indifferent regarding their education. Numerous factors have been identified in relation to affecting motivation in students. One factor that has been studied in great detail is social factors in relation to student motivation. Social characteristics can be defined as, “the presence of others motivating behavior” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 189). We also find that “interpersonal relationships that provide students with a sense of belongingness can be powerful motivators of children’s school related interests” (Wentzel, 1997, p. 418). Research has shown that students are likely to “adopt standards for performance and display academic skills modeled by their classmates” (p. 418). This idea is directly related to the trait theorists’ idea of students’ need for affiliation. This theory states that students choose others, with similar interests, with whom to affiliate. This need for affiliation changes greatly through a student’s academic career. For example, a fifth-grade student may affiliate with other students in an entirely academic context while a high school senior affiliates with others in a social context. (McDevitt & Ormond, 2002, p. 460). In addition to peer interactions, parental interactions are also influential in increasing motivation. When students have positive relationships with parents, they tend to have a high emotional well-being in the classroom. In turn, this emotional well being influences student interest in school and academic achievement (Wentzel, 1997, p. 418). The need for approval from parents is a major contribution to this aspect of motivation. Need for approval is defined as “a strong desire to gain the acceptance and positive judgments of other people” (McDevitt & Ormond, 2002, p. 461). This need for approval generally is strongest when students are young. As students grow, this approval from parental figures is generally replaced by peer approval (p. 461). Perhaps one of the most influential aspects of affecting student motivation is teachers. Teachers realize that affecting motivation is a daunting task, and when polled, teachers “list motivating students as one of their chief concerns and seek new ways to accomplish it” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 3). In the past, the role of teachers as student motivators was viewed in an extremely narrow sense. The primary way for educators in the past to motivate students was to dispense rewards such as “grades, privileges, praise, prizes and stickers” (p. 328). However, this, as most aspects of modern education, has changed significantly. Now, teachers affect student learning and motivation through every action made within the classroom. It has been proven that teachers affect student motivation through the effective modeling of positive values in the classroom (Wentzel, 2002, p. 287). It has been suggested that teachers provide students with “an intrinsically motivated model with the potential to affect their own motivation to learn” (p. 287). Also, it has also been recognized that effective teacher curriculum planning affects motivation. When teachers plan effectively, they are concerned “with how much the instruction and activities will appeal to student interests” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 330). A third way that teachers can influence motivation in the classroom is through positive feedback. Feedback is divided into four categories: performance feedback, motivational feedback, attributional feedback, and strategy feedback. Performance feedback occurs when a teacher praises a student on effective work but also includes corrective information (p. 336). Motivational feedback provides information on a student’s progress and competence; no reference is made to the degree of correct or incorrect answers (p. 337). Attributional feedback links a student’s performance with positive attributes in order to increase motivation. Strategy feedback allows students to see how well they are applying various strategies taught in the classroom (p. 338). A final way that teachers can influence motivation is through the disbursement of rewards. Bandura discovered that “rewards are effective because people behaving in a given fashion will be rewarded” (p. 340). Motivational rewards in the classroom include grades, privileges, honors, free time, points, tokens, stickers, and stars (p. 340). To curb students from becoming totally reliant on these rewards, thus becoming totally extrinsically motivated, a teacher must be sure to explain the reward system to the class. This explanation allows students to set goals to strive for, which, in turn, increases motivation. In direct relation to teacher influences on motivation, there has been a great deal of research completed on ways for educators to increase motivation through pedagogical techniques. A major focus in this area of study is teacher attitudes toward instruction. Research has found that “a lesson that is given in a high-energy, dynamic fashion suggestive of enthusiasm leads students to experience greater interest in and enjoyment of the material and higher levels of energy and vigor” (Patrick, Hisley, & Kemphler, 2000, p. 217). It is also recommended that teachers “display a passion for concepts and topics, your sense of pride in accomplishment, your joy associated with learning” (Powell, 2004, p. 202). A second major finding is that students are interested, thus increasing intrinsic motivation, in subjects that relate to real-life. A 10th grade student was asked what use his current schoolwork would be to him in his adult life? His answer: “Latin will be helpful for my SAT’s.” No answer could be initiated for what his schoolwork would afford him after he completes his educational career (Kuhn, 2003, p. 22). To avoid this type of response and to increase motivation for learning, teachers can “link instruction with current events, which is a useful strategy to increase motivation” (Lozanda,1999, p. 26). A final suggestion made for teachers to increase motivation is to actively involve students in daily lessons. For example, it is suggested that motivation is increased by review of previously learned material. This review of material “shows students what they have learned which enhances motivation for further learning because it validates student’s beliefs about their competence” (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p. 334). While completing this imperative review, it is recommended that teachers facilitate student motivation by allowing students to participate via group discussions, student lead review sessions and fun, interactive exercises. This demonstrates to students that the teacher values their opinions, which increases motivation (Wentzel, 2002, p. 299). This extensive review of literature illustrates the importance of motivation in education through explaining what motivation is and how it is related to education. The literature also reflects the factors that affect motivation in students, including teacher influences on student motivation. Finally, a sampling of pedagogical methods that teachers can use to help motivate students is presented. Definitions of Important Terms 1. Motivation: A “state that energizes, directs and sustains behavior” (McDevitt & Ormond, 2002, p. 456). 2. Pedagogical: The study of the methods and activities relating to teaching (Free Search UK, 2004). 3. Behavioral Psychology: The realm of psychology that deals with behavior as “it is described and explained in terms of specific stimulus-response relationships” (McDevitt & Ormond, 2002, p. 456). 4. Intrinsic motivation: Motivation by “factors within themselves or inherent in the task they are performing” (McDevitt & Ormond, 2002, p. 456). 5. Extrinsic motivation: Factors external to a person which motivates them to do well. 6. Performance indicators: Signs of how students are progressing throughout assigned curriculum. 7. Social comparisons: The comparison of an individual to others in society or peer groups. 8. Need for affiliation: An individual’s need for feeling as one belongs to a peer group or society in general. 9. Modeling: Illustrating important concepts or behaviors via actions. 10. Curriculum planning: Developing activities for students based on the needs of students and the educational standards set forth for each school. 11. Feedback: The process in which a teacher provides students with information on how well tasks are completed. 12. Motivational rewards: Rewards such as stickers, treats, extra points, etc., that are used to motivate students. Data Collection and Results Data Collection This inquiry project consists of three primary categories, data collection, data analysis, and conclusion and recommendations. Data collection consisted of the distribution of two anonymous surveys, both using a Likert Scale, to students who had parental permission to participate in a Hamilton County high school (school 1) and middle school (school 2) science class. The student self-perception survey, “Why Do You Come to School,” (see Appendix A), based on the Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais, Briere, & Senecal, 1993) relates specific information regarding motivation and factors that affect students’ personal motivation in school. The second survey which was distributed, “Your Opinion,” (see Appendix B), requested that students to rate their science teacher on a variety of aspects regarding their daily interactions with the students, the presentation of material, and their overall attitude toward the class. Students were asked to record their responses directly on the survey instrument. The Respondents The students in school 1 are all members of a preparatory biology one class in grades nine through eleven. A large majority of this class finds themselves as repeat biology students. Additionally, 16 out of the 35 students in this class qualify for special education services. The students in school 2 are all members of a physical science class that allows the students to earn a high school credit. The demographics in this class differ greatly from the demographics of school 1. The students in this class are all first-time, physical science students and in the eighth grade, and none qualify for special education services. Data Analysis Subsequent to all data collection, data analysis occurred. Data analysis of the student self-perception survey consisted of categorizing each student as an intrinsically motivated student or an extrinsically motivated student, according to survey responses. Each question on the survey corresponds to either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated students. Student answers determined a raw score which indicated the category in which each student was placed. Student data was then sorted and graphed via Microsoft Excel for easy interpretation. Data analysis of the teacher-perception survey included dividing the students’ perceptions of the teacher into categories. As with the student motivation survey, each question corresponds to specific ideas that are proven motivators and nonmotivators in relation to teacher interactions with students. The category the teacher was placed in corresponds to the total score in each category from all surveys. Furthermore, teacher data was then sorted and graphed via Microsoft Excel for easy interpretation. This information will be used to determine the suggested course of intervention for the classroom. Results When the data analysis phase of this study was completed, the survey results were quite unexpected. Through the completion of the “Why Do You Come to School” survey, it was found that students who were surveyed, in both school 1 and school 2, are primarily intrinsically motivated. In the high school, school 1, the students responded 78 times (40.6%) with a definite “How I Feel” (the response found on the survey to indicate a definite yes answer), when asked questions relating to intrinsic motivation. As well, students responded with a “Mostly How I Feel” (the response found on the survey to indicate a majority feeling) response 50 times (26%). Alternatively, students in school 1 responded with “How I Feel” 63 times (32.8%) and “Mostly How I Feel” 23 times (12%), in relation to a question regarding extrinsic motivation factors. These results are illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1. Motivation Comparison School 1. In the middle school, school 2, the data reflected similar findings to that of school 1. In relation to statements that reflected definite intrinsic motivation qualities, students answered with a “How I Feel” response 58 times (32%). Furthermore, students answered with a “Mostly How I Feel” response 32 times (17%), when presented with intrinsically motivated statements. On the other hand, students provided a response of “How I Feel” 47 times (26%) and “Mostly How I Feel” 26 times (14%), when presented with statements relating to extrinsic motivation. These results are reflected in Figure 2. 0 20 40 60 80 Intrinsic Motivaiton Total Extrinsic Motivaiton Total Mostly How I Feel How I Feel Figure 2. Motivation Comparison School 2. The completion of the second survey (Your Opinion) reflects how students in school 1 and school 2 feel about their science teacher’s motivating behaviors in the classroom. As previously stated, each of the survey questions correlates to either a motivating or non motivating behavior exhibited by the teacher. It was found that, in both school 1 and school 2, the science teachers scrutinized by the respondents exhibit motivating behaviors in the majority of situations. In school 1, students responded with a “How I Feel” response 79 times (54%) and a “Mostly How I Feel” response 35 times (24%), when asked questions relating to motivating behaviors exhibited by their teacher. In contrast, students in school 1 responded with a “How I Feel” response 11 times (6.9%) and a “Mostly How I Feel” response 10 times (6.7%), when presented with questions relating to non motivating behaviors demonstrated by their teacher. These results are illustrated in Figure 3. 0 20 40 60 Intrinsic Motivaiton Total Extrinsic Motivaiton Total Mostly How I Feel How I Feel Figure 3. Teacher Behavior School 1. In school 2, much like school 1, the students responded that their teacher exhibits motivating behavior in the majority of situations. For example, the students responded with a “How I Feel” reply 63 times (48%) and a “Mostly How I Feel” response 34 times (26%), when presented with questions relating to motivating behaviors in relation to their teacher. Conversely, students replied with a “Mostly How I Feel” reply only 13 times (1.0%) and a “Mostly How I Feel” response 17 times (1.3%) when asked to evaluate their teacher in regard to non motivating factors that are exhibited in the classroom. The results of this survey can be viewed in Figure 4. 0 20 40 60 80 Motivating Behavior Total Non- Motivating Behavior Total Mostly How I Feel How I Feel Figure 4. Teacher Behavior School 2. Conclusions and Recommendations As a pre-service teacher, the completion of this study was an eye-opening experience. Surprisingly, it was found that the majority of respondents surveyed were intrinsically motivated with regard to school. Many students replied that they were proud and happy when they did well in school. Additionally, a large number of students communicated that they genuinely enjoy coming to school. It was also discovered that a large percentage of the students surveyed view their teacher to have positive, motivating attitudes toward them and the subject matter being discussed. Through the analysis of this data, it can be theorized that teachers that possess a positive, motivating attitude in the classroom help contribute to developing intrinsically motivated students. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) concurs with this theory in their publication, Beyond 2000, Teachers of Science Speak Out. The following is found in this publication: “Teachers of science must provide their students with inquiries that mentally and physically engage their students with the content and motivation to continue learning” 0 20 40 60 80 Motivating Behavior Total Non- Motivating Behavior Total Mostly How I Feel How I Feel (NSTA, 2003). Thus, there is a direct correlation between teacher attitudes regarding instruction and motivation in the classroom. Learning to develop into this positive, motivating influence upon students is a potential obstacle for many educators. Thus, professional development is an excellent way for educators to expand this skill. NSTA further supports the growth of motivated practitioners by providing an abundance of professional development opportunities. Some of these opportunities include the Professional Development Institute (PDI), regional and national conferences, web seminars and NSTA recommended publications such as SCIGuides and the NSTA newsletter, NSTA Express (NSTA, 2005). Additionally, an innovative concept, Comprehensive Professional Development (CPD), is on the forefront of educational professional development. This method focuses on, “strategies for facilitating teacher growth through professional dialogue with colleagues, collaborative curriculum development, peer supervision, peer coaching, and action research leading to school wide change” (North American Association of Educational Negotiators, 1999). Educators who wish to research student motivation as a method of professional development have numerous opportunities, some of which provide funding intended for the completion of the research. For example, the William T. Grant Foundation (2005 a) provides funding for educators wishing to study the correlation of motivation at school and Latino successes. This foundation also provides a substantial grant to explore the patterns of motivation in relation to student achievement in school (2005 b). Finally, the United States Department of Education (2005)has a wealth of resources online, regarding research-based grants. The integration of technology in the classroom is a final aspect that must be discussed when considering teacher and student motivation. The use of technology in the classroom is an invaluable tool for increasing both teacher and student motivation. For example, students who are intrinsically motivated will complete assignments such as WebQuests for the personal satisfaction of completing the assignment. On the other hand, a student who is extrinsically motivated may be motivated to complete the WebQuest due to the fact that they get to complete their assignment by using the computer. Technology is also a motivating factor for teachers and proves to be an invaluable tool in teaching today. From the use of computers to maintain grades and records, to the use of PowerPoint software to conduct lectures, technology is integrated throughout the classroom. Perhaps, teachers who rely heavily on technology may be disposed to include more interactive, technology-based activities in their curriculum that engage and motivate both intrinsically-motivated and extrinsically-motivated students. The study of motivation in the classroom has proven to be an invaluable experience. Data results reflect that, unpredictably, students are intrinsically motivated in relation to school. This study also revealed that students are motivated by teachers that display positive attitudes. It was also discovered that there are numerous techniques for teachers to expand their knowledge of this subject through professional development and grant writing opportunities. Finally, the integration of technology proves to be an essential factor when discussing motivation in the classroom. References Free Search UK. (2004). Online dictionary. Retrieved November 19, 2004 from http://www.freesearch.co.uk/dictionary/pedagogical. Harris, R. (1991). Some ideas for motivating students. Virtual salt. Retrieved November 10, 2004, from http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm Kuhn, D. (2003). Understanding and valuing knowing as developmental goals. Liberal Education, 89(3), 16-32. Lonzada, M. (1999.) When science gets racy. Techniques, 74(2), 26. Martin, A. J. (2003). The student motivation scale: Further testing of an instrument that measures school students’ motivation. Australian Journal of Education, 47(1), 88- 107. McDevitt, T. M., & Ormond J. E. (2002). Child development: Educating and working with children and adolescents. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). (2003). Beyond 2000, teachers of science speak out. Retrieved November 16, 2005, from http://www.nsta.org/positionstatement&psid=29 National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). (2005). Funding your NSTA learning Experience. Retrieved November 27, 2005, from http://www.nsta.org/conftips. North American Association of Educational Negotiators (NAEN). (1999, July/August). Motivating teachers to improve instruction. National Association of Educational Negotiators 15(1), July/August 1999. Patrick, B.C, Hisley, J., & Kempler T. (2000). What’s everybody so excited about? The effects of teacher enthuasium on intrinsic motivation and vitality. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68(3), 217. Perry, N. E., Nordby, C. J., & VandeKamp, K. O. (2003). Promoting self-regulated reading and writing at home and school. The Elementary School Journal, 103(4), 317-340. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk D. H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory research and applications. New York: Prentice Hall. Powell, S. (2004). Introduction to Middle School. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Thorkildsen, T. A. (2005). Fundamentals in applied research. Boston: Pearson. United States Department of Education. (2005). Funding options. Retrieved November 27, 2005, from http://www.ed.gov. Vallerand, R. J, Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., & Senecal, C. B. (1993). Academic motivation scale (AMS-HS 28). Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. H. (1987). Metacognition, motivation and understanding. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wentzel, K. R. (2002). Are effective teachers like good parents? Teaching styles and adjustment in early adolescence. Child Development. 73, 287-302. Wentzel, K. R. (1997). Student motivation in middles: The role of perceived pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (3), 411-419. William T. Grant Foundation. (2005 a). Latino students’ motivation and critical thinking project. Retrieved November 27, 2005, from http://www.wtgrantfoundation.org/grant_profile4314/ . William T. Grant Foundation. (2005 b). Studies in school experience and patterns of motivation and achievement among diverse samples of adolescents. Retrieved November 27, 2005, from http://www.wtgrantfoundation.org/grant_profile3079/ Appendix A Why Do You Come To School? Answer the following questions by circling the number that matches how you FEEL about school. 1 2 3 4 Not Sometimes Mostly How I How I How I How I Feel Feel Feel Feel I come to school: 1. Because I’m happy while learning new things. 1 2 3 4 2. Because school will help me get a good job one day. 1 2 3 4 3. Because I really like coming to school. 1 2 3 4 4. Because my parents make me. 1 2 3 4 5. Because I am happy when I do well in school. 1 2 3 4 6. Because I want to prove to myself that I can earn good grades. 1 2 3 4 7. Because I’m happy when I find out new things. 1 2 3 4 8. Because I have fun at school. 1 2 3 4 9. Because when I do well in school, I feel important. 1 2 3 4 10. Because it makes me happy to learn about subjects I enjoy. 1 2 3 4 11. Because school will help me decide a career. 1 2 3 4 12. Because I want to talk to my friends. 1 2 3 4 13. Because it makes me happy to finish hard assignments. 1 2 3 4 14. Because I want to prove to others and myself that I am smart. 1 2 3 4 15. Because I will get in trouble if I don’t come to school. 1 2 3 4 Appendix B Your Opinion Answer the following questions by circling the number that matches how you FEEL. 1 2 3 4 Not Sometimes Mostly How How How How I Feel I Feel I Feel I Feel I FEEL that my teacher: 1. Likes Science. 1 2 3 4 2. Makes me feel bad for not doing my homework. 1 2 3 4 3. Grades fairly. 1 2 3 4 4. Has told us what classroom rules to follow. 1 2 3 4 5. Tries to make Science fun for me. 1 2 3 4 6. Gets mad at me for not trying in class. 1 2 3 4 7. Shows me why learning Science is important. 1 2 3 4 8. Calls on me to answer questions. 1 2 3 4 9. Treats others better than me. 1 2 3 4 10. Is excited to be teaching me. 1 2 3 4